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<title>Case–control study</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Case–control study</span></span>

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</p><p>A <b>case–control study</b> (also known as <b>case–referent study</b>) is a type of <a href="Observational_study" title="Observational study">observational study</a> in which two existing groups differing in outcome are identified and compared on the basis of some supposed causal attribute. Case–control studies are often used to identify factors that may contribute to a medical condition by comparing subjects who have the condition with patients who do not have the condition but are otherwise similar.<sup id="cite_ref-url8._Case-control_and_cross_sectional_studies_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-url8._Case-control_and_cross_sectional_studies-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They require fewer resources but provide less evidence for causal inference than a <a href="Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">randomized controlled trial</a>. A case–control study is often used to produce an <a href="Odds_ratio" title="Odds ratio">odds ratio</a>. Some statistical methods make it possible to use a case–control study to also estimate relative risk, risk differences, and other quantities.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2></div>

<p>Porta's <i>Dictionary of Epidemiology</i> defines the case–control study as: "an observational epidemiological study of persons with the disease (or another outcome variable) of interest and a suitable control group of persons without the disease (comparison group, reference group). The potential relationship of a suspected risk factor or an attribute to the disease is examined by comparing the diseased and nondiseased subjects with regard to how frequently the factor or attribute is present (or, if quantitative, the levels of the attribute) in each of the groups (diseased and nondiseased)."<sup id="cite_ref-Porta's_Dictionary_of_Epidemiology_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Porta's_Dictionary_of_Epidemiology-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The case–control study is frequently contrasted with <a href="Cohort_study" title="Cohort study">cohort studies</a>, wherein exposed and unexposed subjects are observed until they develop an outcome of interest.<sup id="cite_ref-Porta's_Dictionary_of_Epidemiology_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Porta's_Dictionary_of_Epidemiology-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Control_group_selection">Control group selection</h3></div>

<p>Controls need not be in good health; inclusion of sick people is sometimes appropriate, as the control group should represent those at risk of becoming a case.<sup id="cite_ref-Grimes_2005_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grimes_2005-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Controls should come from the same population as the cases, and their selection should be independent of the exposures of interest.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid11844534_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid11844534-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Controls can carry the same disease as the experimental group, but of another grade/severity, therefore being different from the outcome of interest. However, because the difference between the cases and the controls will be smaller, this results in a lower <a href="Statistical_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical power">power</a> to detect an exposure effect.

</p><p>As with any epidemiological study, greater numbers in the study will increase the power of the study. Numbers of cases and controls do not have to be equal. In many situations, it is much easier to recruit controls than to find cases. Increasing the number of controls above the number of cases, up to a ratio of about 4 to 1, may be a cost-effective way to improve the study.<sup id="cite_ref-Grimes_2005_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grimes_2005-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prospective_vs._retrospective_cohort_studies">Prospective vs. retrospective cohort studies</h3></div>

<p>A prospective study watches for outcomes, such as the development of a disease, during the study period and relates this to other factors such as suspected risk or protection factor(s). The study usually involves taking a cohort of subjects and watching them over a long period. The outcome of interest should be common; otherwise, the number of outcomes observed will be too small to be statistically meaningful (indistinguishable from those that may have arisen by chance). All efforts should be made to avoid sources of bias such as the loss of individuals to follow up during the study. Prospective studies usually have fewer potential sources of bias and confounding than retrospective studies.<sup id="cite_ref-SD_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SD-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>A retrospective study, on the other hand, looks backwards and examines exposures to suspected risk or protection factors in relation to an outcome that is established at the start of the study. Many valuable case–control studies, such as Lane and Claypon's 1926 investigation of risk factors for breast cancer, were retrospective investigations. Most sources of error due to confounding and bias are more common in retrospective studies than in prospective studies. For this reason, retrospective investigations are often criticised. If the outcome of interest is uncommon, however, the size of prospective investigation required to estimate relative risk is often too large to be feasible. In retrospective studies the odds ratio provides an estimate of relative risk. One should take special care to avoid sources of <a href="Bias_(statistics)" title="Bias (statistics)">bias</a> and <a href="Confounding" title="Confounding">confounding</a> in retrospective studies.<sup id="cite_ref-SD_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SD-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Strengths_and_weaknesses">Strengths and weaknesses</h2></div>

<p>Case–control studies are a relatively inexpensive and frequently used type of epidemiological study that can be carried out by small teams or individual researchers in single facilities in a way that more structured experimental studies often cannot be. They have pointed the way to a number of important discoveries and advances. The case–control study design is often used in the study of rare diseases or as a preliminary study where little is known about the association between the risk factor and disease of interest.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Compared to prospective <a href="Cohort_study" title="Cohort study">cohort studies</a> they tend to be less costly and shorter in duration. In several situations, they have greater statistical power than cohort studies, which must often wait for a 'sufficient' number of disease events to accrue.

</p><p>Case–control studies are observational in nature and thus do not provide the same level of evidence as <a href="Randomized_controlled_trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Randomized controlled trials">randomized controlled trials</a>. The results may be confounded by other factors, to the extent of giving the opposite answer to better studies. A meta-analysis of what was considered 30 high-quality studies concluded that use of a product halved a risk, when in fact the risk was, if anything, increased.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid15166201_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid15166201-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid16014596_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid16014596-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It may also be more difficult to establish the timeline of exposure to disease outcome in the setting of a case–control study than within a prospective cohort study design where the exposure is ascertained prior to following the subjects over time in order to ascertain their outcome status. The most important drawback in case–control studies relates to the difficulty of obtaining reliable information about an individual's exposure status over time. Case–control studies are therefore placed low in the <a href="Hierarchy_of_evidence" title="Hierarchy of evidence">hierarchy of evidence</a>.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2></div>

<p>One of the most significant triumphs of the case–control study was the demonstration of the link between tobacco smoking and lung cancer, by <a href="Richard_Doll" title="Richard Doll">Richard Doll</a> and <a href="Austin_Bradford_Hill" title="Austin Bradford Hill">Bradford Hill</a>. They showed a statistically significant association in a large case–control study.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid14772469_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid14772469-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Opponents argued for many years that this type of study cannot prove causation, but the eventual results of cohort studies confirmed the causal link which the case–control studies suggested,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid13364389_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid13364389-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid15213107_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid15213107-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and it is now accepted that tobacco smoking is the cause of about 87% of all lung cancer mortality in the US.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Analysis">Analysis</h2></div>

<p>Case–control studies were initially analyzed by testing whether or not there were significant differences between the proportion of exposed subjects among cases and controls.<sup id="cite_ref-Rodrigues_1990_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rodrigues_1990-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subsequently, Cornfield<sup id="cite_ref-pmid7046823_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid7046823-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> pointed out that, when the disease outcome of interest is rare, the <a href="Odds_ratio" title="Odds ratio">odds ratio</a> of exposure can be used to estimate the <a href="Relative_risk" title="Relative risk">relative risk</a> (see <a href="Rare_disease_assumption" title="Rare disease assumption">rare disease assumption</a>). The validity of the odds ratio depends highly on the nature of the disease studied, on the sampling methodology and on the type of follow-up. Although in classical case–control studies, it remains true that the odds ratio can only approximate the relative risk in the case of rare diseases, there is a number of other types of studies (case–cohort, nested case–control, cohort studies) in which it was later shown that the <a href="Odds_ratio" title="Odds ratio">odds ratio</a> of exposure can be used to estimate the <a href="Relative_risk" title="Relative risk">relative risk</a> or the <a href="Incidence_rate_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Incidence rate ratio">incidence rate ratio</a> of exposure without the need for the rare disease assumption.<sup id="cite_ref-Rodrigues_1990_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rodrigues_1990-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid1251836_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid1251836-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>When the logistic regression model is used to model the case–control data and the odds ratio is of interest, both the prospective and retrospective likelihood methods will lead to identical maximum likelihood estimations for covariate, except for the intercept.<sup id="cite_ref-Prentice1979_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Prentice1979-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The usual methods of estimating more interpretable parameters than odds ratios—such as risk ratios, levels, and differences—is biased if applied to case–control data, but special statistical procedures provide easy to use consistent estimators.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impact_on_longevity_and_public_health">Impact on longevity and public health</h2></div>

<p><a href="Philip_E._Tetlock" title="Philip E. Tetlock">Tetlock</a> and Gardner claimed that the contributions of medical science to increasing human longevity and public health were negligible, and too often negative, until Scottish physician <a href="Archie_Cochrane" title="Archie Cochrane">Archie Cochrane</a> was able to convince the medical establishment to adopt <a href="Randomized_controlled_trial#History" title="Randomized controlled trial">randomized control trials</a> after World War II.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<ul><li><a href="Nested_case%E2%80%93control_study" title="Nested case–control study">Nested case–control study</a></li>

<li><a href="Retrospective_cohort_study" title="Retrospective cohort study">Retrospective cohort study</a></li>

<li><a href="Prospective_cohort_study" title="Prospective cohort study">Prospective cohort study</a></li>

<li><a href="Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">Randomized controlled trial</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-pmid15166201-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid15166201_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLawlorDavey_SmithEbrahim2004" class="citation journal cs1">Lawlor DA, <a href="George_Davey_Smith" title="George Davey Smith">Davey Smith G</a>, Ebrahim S (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fije%2Fdyh124">"Commentary: the hormone replacement-coronary heart disease conundrum: is this the death of observational epidemiology?"</a>. <i>Int J Epidemiol</i>. <b>33</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">464–</span>7. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fije%2Fdyh124">10.1093/ije/dyh124</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15166201">15166201</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-pmid16014596-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid16014596_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFIoannidis2005" class="citation journal cs1">Ioannidis JP (2005). "Contradicted and initially stronger effects in highly cited clinical research". <i>JAMA</i>. <b>294</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">218–</span>28. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.294.2.218">10.1001/jama.294.2.218</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16014596">16014596</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16749356">16749356</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-pmid14772469-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid14772469_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFDollHill1950" class="citation journal cs1">Doll R, Hill AB (1950). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2038856">"Smoking and carcinoma of the lung; preliminary report"</a>. <i>Br Med J</i>. <b>2</b> (4682): <span class="nowrap">739–</span>48. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.2.4682.739">10.1136/bmj.2.4682.739</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2038856">2038856</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14772469">14772469</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-pmid13364389-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid13364389_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFDollHill1956" class="citation journal cs1">Doll R, Hill AB (1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2035864">"Lung cancer and other causes of death in relation to smoking; a second report on the mortality of British doctors"</a>. <i>Br Med J</i>. <b>2</b> (5001): <span class="nowrap">1071–</span>81. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.2.5001.1071">10.1136/bmj.2.5001.1071</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2035864">2035864</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13364389">13364389</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-pmid15213107-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid15213107_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFDollPetoBorehamSutherland2004" class="citation journal cs1">Doll R, Peto R, Boreham J, Sutherland I (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC437139">"Mortality in relation to smoking: 50 years' observations on male British doctors"</a>. <i>BMJ</i>. <b>328</b> (7455): 1519. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.38142.554479.AE">10.1136/bmj.38142.554479.AE</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC437139">437139</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15213107">15213107</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Rodrigues_1990-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rodrigues_1990_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rodrigues_1990_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRodriguesKirkwood1990" class="citation journal cs1">Rodrigues L, Kirkwood BR (1990). "Case–control designs in the study of common diseases: updates on the demise of the rare disease assumption and the choice of sampling scheme for controls". <i>Int. J. Epidemiol</i>. <b>19</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">205–</span>13. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fije%2F19.1.205">10.1093/ije/19.1.205</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2190942">2190942</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-pmid7046823-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid7046823_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFGreenhouse1982" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Greenhouse SW (1982). "Jerome Cornfield's contributions to epidemiology". <i>Biometrics</i>. 38 Suppl: <span class="nowrap">33–</span>45. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2529852">10.2307/2529852</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2529852">2529852</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7046823">7046823</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-pmid1251836-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid1251836_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMiettinen1976" class="citation journal cs1">Miettinen O (1976). "Estimability and estimation in case–referent studies". <i>Am. J. Epidemiol</i>. <b>103</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">226–</span>35. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordjournals.aje.a112220">10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a112220</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1251836">1251836</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRothmanGreenlandLash2008" class="citation book cs1">Rothman KJ, Greenland S, Lash TL (2008). <i>Modern Epidemiology</i> (3rd ed.). Wolters Kluwer, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7817-5564-1</bdi>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Prentice1979-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Prentice1979_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPrenticePyke1979" class="citation journal cs1">Prentice RL, Pyke R (1979). "Logistic disease incidence models and case–control studies". <i>Biometrika</i>. <b>66</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">403–</span>411. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbiomet%2F66.3.403">10.1093/biomet/66.3.403</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKingZeng2002" class="citation journal cs1">King G, Zeng L (30 May 2002). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/sim.1032">"Estimating risk and rate levels, ratios and differences in case–control studies"</a></span>. <i>Statistics in Medicine</i>. <b>21</b> (10): <span class="nowrap">1409–</span>1427. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fsim.1032">10.1002/sim.1032</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0277-6715">0277-6715</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12185893">12185893</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11387977">11387977</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPhilip_E._TetlockDan_Gardner2015" class="citation cs2"><a href="Philip_E._Tetlock" title="Philip E. Tetlock">Philip E. Tetlock</a>, Dan Gardner (2015), <i><a href="Superforecasting%3A_The_Art_and_Science_of_Prediction" class="mw-redirect" title="Superforecasting: The Art and Science of Prediction">Superforecasting: The Art and Science of Prediction</a></i>, <a href="Crown_Publishing_Group" title="Crown Publishing Group">Crown Publishing Group</a>, <a href="WDQ_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="WDQ (identifier)">Wikidata</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21203378" class="extiw external" title="d:Q21203378">Q21203378</a></cite>, esp. ch. 2.</span>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFStolley,_Paul_D.Schlesselman,_James_J.1982" class="citation book cs1">Stolley, Paul D., Schlesselman, James J. (1982). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/casecontrolstudi00jame"><i>Case–control studies: design, conduct, analysis</i></a></span>. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-19-502933-X</bdi>.</cite> (Still a very useful book, and a great place to start, but now a bit out of date.)</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wtccc.org.uk/">Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Clinical_research_and_experimental_design505" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Clinical_research" title="Clinical research">Clinical research</a> and <a href="Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">experimental design</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">Clinical trial</a>

<ul><li><a href="Protocol_(science)" title="Protocol (science)">Trial protocols</a></li>

<li><a href="Adaptive_clinical_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Adaptive clinical trial">Adaptive clinical trial</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Academic_clinical_trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic clinical trials">Academic clinical trials</a></li>

<li><a href="Clinical_study_design" title="Clinical study design">Clinical study design</a></li>

<li><a href="Evidence-based_medicine" title="Evidence-based medicine">Evidence-based medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Real_world_evidence" title="Real world evidence">Real world evidence</a></li>

<li><a href="Patient_and_public_involvement" title="Patient and public involvement">Patient and public involvement</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Scientific_control" title="Scientific control">Controlled study</a><br>(<a href="Hierarchy_of_evidence#USA" title="Hierarchy of evidence">EBM I to II-1</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">Randomized controlled trial</a>

<ul><li><a href="Experiment" title="Experiment">Scientific experiment</a></li>

<li><a href="Blind_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Blind experiment">Blind experiment</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-label_trial" title="Open-label trial">Open-label trial</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Adaptive_clinical_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Adaptive clinical trial">Adaptive clinical trial</a>

<ul><li><a href="Platform_trial" title="Platform trial">Platform trial</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Observational_study" title="Observational study">Observational study</a><br>(<a href="Hierarchy_of_evidence#USA" title="Hierarchy of evidence">EBM II-2 to II-3</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cross-sectional_study" title="Cross-sectional study">Cross-sectional study</a> vs. <a href="Longitudinal_study" title="Longitudinal study">Longitudinal study</a>, <a href="Ecological_study" title="Ecological study">Ecological study</a></li>

<li><a href="Cohort_study" title="Cohort study">Cohort study</a>

<ul><li><a href="Retrospective_cohort_study" title="Retrospective cohort study">Retrospective</a></li>

<li><a href="Prospective_cohort_study" title="Prospective cohort study">Prospective</a></li></ul></li>

<li> (<a href="Nested_case%E2%80%93control_study" title="Nested case–control study">Nested case–control study</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Case_series" title="Case series">Case series</a></li>

<li><a href="Case_study" title="Case study">Case study</a></li>

<li><a href="Case_report" title="Case report">Case report</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Outcome_measure" title="Outcome measure">Measures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Epidemiological_methods" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidemiological methods">Occurrence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="Incidence_(epidemiology)" title="Incidence (epidemiology)">Incidence</a>, <a href="Cumulative_incidence" class="mw-redirect" title="Cumulative incidence">Cumulative incidence</a>, <a href="Prevalence" title="Prevalence">Prevalence</a>, <a href="Point_prevalence" class="mw-redirect" title="Point prevalence">Point prevalence</a>, <a href="Period_prevalence" class="mw-redirect" title="Period prevalence">Period prevalence</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Epidemiological_methods" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidemiological methods">Association</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="Risk_difference" title="Risk difference">Risk difference</a>, <a href="Number_needed_to_treat" title="Number needed to treat">Number needed to treat</a>, <a href="Number_needed_to_harm" title="Number needed to harm">Number needed to harm</a>, <a href="Risk_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Risk ratio">Risk ratio</a>, <a href="Relative_risk_reduction" title="Relative risk reduction">Relative risk reduction</a>, <a href="Odds_ratio" title="Odds ratio">Odds ratio</a>, <a href="Hazard_ratio" title="Hazard ratio">Hazard ratio</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Population_impact_measure" title="Population impact measure">Population impact</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="Attributable_fraction_among_the_exposed" title="Attributable fraction among the exposed">Attributable fraction among the exposed</a>, <a href="Attributable_fraction_for_the_population" title="Attributable fraction for the population">Attributable fraction for the population</a>, <a href="Preventable_fraction_among_the_unexposed" title="Preventable fraction among the unexposed">Preventable fraction among the unexposed</a>, <a href="Preventable_fraction_for_the_population" title="Preventable fraction for the population">Preventable fraction for the population</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Epidemiological_methods" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidemiological methods">Other</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="Clinical_endpoint" title="Clinical endpoint">Clinical endpoint</a>, <a href="Virulence" title="Virulence">Virulence</a>, <a href="Infectivity" title="Infectivity">Infectivity</a>, <a href="Mortality_rate" title="Mortality rate">Mortality rate</a>, <a href="Morbidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Morbidity">Morbidity</a>, <a href="Case_fatality_rate" title="Case fatality rate">Case fatality rate</a>, <a href="Specificity_and_sensitivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Specificity and sensitivity">Specificity and sensitivity</a>, <a href="Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing" title="Likelihood ratios in diagnostic testing">Likelihood-ratios</a>, <a href="Pre-_and_post-test_probability" title="Pre- and post-test probability">Pre- and post-test probability</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trial/test types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="In_vitro" title="In vitro">In vitro</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_testing" title="Animal testing">Animal testing</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_testing_on_non-human_primates" title="Animal testing on non-human primates">Animal testing on non-human primates</a></li>

<li><a href="First-in-man_study" class="mw-redirect" title="First-in-man study">First-in-man study</a></li>

<li><a href="Multicenter_trial" title="Multicenter trial">Multicenter trial</a></li>

<li><a href="Seeding_trial" title="Seeding trial">Seeding trial</a></li>

<li><a href="Vaccine_trial" title="Vaccine trial">Vaccine trial</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Analysis_of_clinical_trials" title="Analysis of clinical trials">Analysis of clinical trials</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Risk%E2%80%93benefit_ratio" title="Risk–benefit ratio">Risk–benefit ratio</a></li>

<li><a href="Systematic_review" title="Systematic review">Systematic review</a></li>

<li><a href="Reproducibility" title="Reproducibility">Replication</a></li>

<li><a href="Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">Meta-analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Intention-to-treat_analysis" title="Intention-to-treat analysis">Intention-to-treat analysis</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interpretation of results</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Selection_bias" title="Selection bias">Selection bias</a></li>

<li><a href="Survivorship_bias" title="Survivorship bias">Survivorship bias</a></li>

<li><a href="Correlation_does_not_imply_causation" title="Correlation does not imply causation">Correlation does not imply causation</a></li>

<li><a href="Null_result" title="Null result">Null result</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_as_a_biological_variable" title="Sex as a biological variable">Sex as a biological variable</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><b>Category</b></li>

<li><b><a href="Glossary_of_clinical_research" title="Glossary of clinical research">Glossary</a></b></li>

<li><b><a href="List_of_clinical_research_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of clinical research topics">List of topics</a></b></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Public_health650" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Public_health650" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Auxology" title="Auxology">Auxology</a></li>

<li><a href="Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li>

<li><a href="Chief_medical_officer" title="Chief medical officer">Chief medical officer</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_competence_in_health_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural competence in health care">Cultural competence</a></li>

<li><a href="Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">Environmental health</a></li>

<li><a href="Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">History of</a></li>

<li><a href="New_eugenics" title="New eugenics">Liberal</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Euthenics" title="Euthenics">Euthenics</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_health_genomics" title="Public health genomics">Genomics</a></li>

<li><a href="Globalization_and_disease" title="Globalization and disease">Globalization and disease</a></li>

<li><a href="Harm_reduction" title="Harm reduction">Harm reduction</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_economics" title="Health economics">Health economics</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_literacy" title="Health literacy">Health literacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_policy" title="Health policy">Health policy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Health_system" title="Health system">Health system</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_care_reform" title="Health care reform">Health care reform</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Housing_First" title="Housing First">Housing First</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation" title="Human right to water and sanitation">Human right to water and sanitation</a></li>

<li><a href="Management_of_depression" title="Management of depression">Management of depression</a>

<ul><li><a href="Public_health_law" title="Public health law">Public health law</a></li>

<li><a href="National_public_health_institutes" class="mw-redirect" title="National public health institutes">National public health institute</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Health_politics" title="Health politics">Health politics</a></li>

<li><a href="Labor_rights" title="Labor rights">Labor rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Maternal_health" title="Maternal health">Maternal health</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical_anthropology" title="Medical anthropology">Medical anthropology</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical sociology</a></li>

<li><a href="Mental_health" title="Mental health">Mental health</a> (<a href="Minister_of_Mental_Health" title="Minister of Mental Health">Ministers</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a></li>

<li><a href="Pharmaceutical_policy" title="Pharmaceutical policy">Pharmaceutical policy</a></li>

<li><a href="Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a>

<li><a href="Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water</a></li>

<li><a href="Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radiation</a></li>

<li><a href="Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">Light</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Prisoners'_rights" title="Prisoners' rights">Prisoners' rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_health_intervention" title="Public health intervention">Public health intervention</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_health_laboratory" title="Public health laboratory">Public health laboratory</a></li>

<li><a href="Right_to_food" title="Right to food">Right to food</a></li>

<li><a href="Right_to_health" title="Right to health">Right to health</a></li>

<li><a href="Right_to_a_healthy_environment" title="Right to a healthy environment">Right to a healthy environment</a></li>

<li><a href="Right_to_housing" title="Right to housing">Right to housing</a></li>

<li><a href="Right_to_rest_and_leisure" title="Right to rest and leisure">Right to rest and leisure</a></li>

<li><a href="Right_to_sit" title="Right to sit">Right to sit</a></li>

<li><a href="Security_of_person" title="Security of person">Security of person</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_and_reproductive_health" title="Sexual and reproductive health">Sexual and reproductive health</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_health_and_illness" title="Sociology of health and illness">Sociology of health and illness</a></li>

<li><a href="Unisex_changing_rooms" title="Unisex changing rooms">Unisex changing rooms</a></li>

<li><a href="Unisex_public_toilets" class="mw-redirect" title="Unisex public toilets">Unisex public toilets</a></li>

<li><a href="Workers'_right_to_access_the_toilet" title="Workers' right to access the toilet">Workers' right to access the toilet</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">Preventive healthcare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Behavior_change_(public_health)" title="Behavior change (public health)">Behavior change</a>

<ul><li><a href="Behavioural_change_theories" title="Behavioural change theories">Theories</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Drug_checking" title="Drug checking">Drug checking</a></li>

<li><a href="Family_planning" title="Family planning">Family planning</a></li>

<li><a href="Harm_reduction" title="Harm reduction">Harm reduction</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_promotion" title="Health promotion">Health promotion</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_nutrition" title="Human nutrition">Human nutrition</a>

<ul><li><a href="Healthy_diet" title="Healthy diet">Healthy diet</a></li>

<li><a href="Preventive_nutrition" title="Preventive nutrition">Preventive nutrition</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Hygiene" title="Hygiene">Hygiene</a>

<ul><li><a href="Food_safety" title="Food safety">Food safety</a></li>

<li><a href="Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">Hand washing</a></li>

<li><a href="Infection_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Infection control">Infection control</a></li>

<li><a href="Oral_hygiene" title="Oral hygiene">Oral hygiene</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Needle_and_syringe_programmes" title="Needle and syringe programmes">Needle and syringe programmes</a></li>

<li><a href="Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a>

<ul><li><a href="Human_factors_and_ergonomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Human factors and ergonomics">Human factors and ergonomics</a></li>

<li><a href="Occupational_hygiene" title="Occupational hygiene">Hygiene</a></li>

<li><a href="Drug_policy" title="Drug policy">Controlled Drugs</a></li>

<li><a href="Injury_prevention" title="Injury prevention">Injury prevention</a></li>

<li><a href="Occupational_medicine" title="Occupational medicine">Medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Occupational_health_nursing" title="Occupational health nursing">Nursing</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Patient_safety" title="Patient safety">Patient safety</a>

<ul><li><a href="Patient_safety_organization" title="Patient safety organization">Organization</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Pharmacovigilance" title="Pharmacovigilance">Pharmacovigilance</a></li>

<li><a href="Reagent_testing" title="Reagent testing">Reagent testing</a></li>

<li><a href="Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Emergency_sanitation" title="Emergency sanitation">Emergency</a></li>

<li><a href="Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route" title="Fecal–oral route">Fecal–oral transmission</a></li>

<li><a href="Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Open defecation</a></li>

<li><a href="Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">Sanitary sewer</a></li>

<li><a href="Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Waterborne diseases</a></li>

<li><a href="Sanitation_worker" title="Sanitation worker">Worker</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="School_hygiene" title="School hygiene">School hygiene</a></li>

<li><a href="Smoking_cessation" title="Smoking cessation">Smoking cessation</a></li>

<li><a href="Supervised_injection_site" title="Supervised injection site">Supervised injection site</a></li>

<li><a href="Vaccination" title="Vaccination">Vaccination</a></li>

<li><a href="Vector_control" title="Vector control">Vector control</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Population_health" title="Population health">Population health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Child_mortality" title="Child mortality">Child mortality</a></li>

<li><a href="Community_health" title="Community health">Community health</a></li>

<li><a href="Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Global_health" title="Global health">Global health</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_impact_assessment" title="Health impact assessment">Health impact assessment</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_system" title="Health system">Health system</a></li>

<li><a href="Infant_mortality" title="Infant mortality">Infant mortality</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_open-source_health_software" title="List of open-source health software">Open-source healthcare software</a></li>

<li><a href="Multimorbidity" title="Multimorbidity">Multimorbidity</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_health_informatics" title="Public health informatics">Public health informatics</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a>

<ul><li><a href="Commercial_determinants_of_health" title="Commercial determinants of health">Commercial determinants of health</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_equity" title="Health equity">Health equity</a></li>

<li><a href="Race_and_health" title="Race and health">Race and health</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Social_medicine" title="Social medicine">Social medicine</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological and<br>epidemiological statistics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul>

<li><a href="Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">Randomized controlled trial</a></li>

<li><a href="Relative_risk" title="Relative risk">Relative risk</a></li>

<li><a href="Statistical_hypothesis_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical hypothesis testing">Statistical hypothesis testing</a>

<ul><li><a href="Analysis_of_variance" title="Analysis of variance">Analysis of variance (ANOVA)</a></li>

<li><a href="Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">Regression analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="ROC_curve" class="mw-redirect" title="ROC curve">ROC curve</a></li>

<li><a href="Student's_t-test" title="Student's t-test">Student's <i>t</i>-test</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_statistical_packages" class="mw-redirect" title="List of statistical packages">Statistical software</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Infectious and epidemic<br>disease prevention</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Asymptomatic_carrier" title="Asymptomatic carrier">Asymptomatic carrier</a></li>

<li><a href="Epidemic" title="Epidemic">Epidemics</a>

<li><a href="Notifiable_disease" title="Notifiable disease">Notifiable diseases</a>

<li><a href="Public_health_surveillance" title="Public health surveillance">Public health surveillance</a>

<ul><li><a href="Disease_surveillance" title="Disease surveillance">Disease surveillance</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Quarantine" title="Quarantine">Quarantine</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexually_transmitted_infection" title="Sexually transmitted infection">Sexually transmitted infection</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_distancing" title="Social distancing">Social distancing</a></li>

<li><a href="Tropical_disease" title="Tropical disease">Tropical disease</a></li>

<li><a href="Vaccine_trial" title="Vaccine trial">Vaccine trial</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Food hygiene and<br>safety management</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Food

<ul><li><a href="Food_additive" title="Food additive">Additive</a></li>

<li><a href="Food_chemistry" title="Food chemistry">Chemistry</a></li>

<li><a href="Food_engineering" title="Food engineering">Engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Food_microbiology" title="Food microbiology">Microbiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Food_processing" title="Food processing">Processing</a></li>

<li><a href="Food_safety" title="Food safety">Safety</a></li>

<li>Safety scandals</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Good_agricultural_practice" title="Good agricultural practice">Good agricultural practice</a></li>

<li><a href="Good_manufacturing_practice" title="Good manufacturing practice">Good manufacturing practice</a>

<ul><li><a href="HACCP" class="mw-redirect" title="HACCP">HACCP</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Health behavioral<br>sciences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">Diffusion of innovations</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_belief_model" title="Health belief model">Health belief model</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_communication" title="Health communication">Health communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">Health psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Positive_deviance" title="Positive deviance">Positive deviance</a></li>

<li><a href="PRECEDE%E2%80%93PROCEED_model" title="PRECEDE–PROCEED model">PRECEDE–PROCEED model</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_cognitive_theory" title="Social cognitive theory">Social cognitive theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_norms_approach" title="Social norms approach">Social norms approach</a></li>

<li><a href="Theory_of_planned_behavior" title="Theory of planned behavior">Theory of planned behavior</a></li>

<li><a href="Transtheoretical_model" title="Transtheoretical model">Transtheoretical model</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations,<br>education<br>and history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Caribbean

<ul><li><a href="Caribbean_Public_Health_Agency" title="Caribbean Public Health Agency">Caribbean Public Health Agency</a></li></ul></li>

<li>China

<ul><li><a href="Chinese_Center_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention">Center for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Europe

<ul><li><a href="European_Centre_for_Disease_Prevention_and_Control" title="European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control">Centre for Disease Prevention and Control</a></li>

<li><a href="European_Parliament_Committee_on_the_Environment%2C_Public_Health_and_Food_Safety" title="European Parliament Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety">Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Russia

<ul><li><a href="Rospotrebnadzor" title="Rospotrebnadzor">Rospotrebnadzor</a></li></ul></li>

<li>India

<ul><li><a href="Ministry_of_Health_and_Family_Welfare" title="Ministry of Health and Family Welfare">Ministry of Health and Family Welfare</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Canada

<ul><li><a href="Health_Canada" title="Health Canada">Health Canada</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_Health_Agency_of_Canada" title="Public Health Agency of Canada">Public Health Agency</a></li></ul></li>

<li>U.S.

<ul><li><a href="Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_departments_in_the_United_States" title="Health departments in the United States">Health departments in the United States</a></li>

<li><a href="Council_on_Education_for_Public_Health" title="Council on Education for Public Health">Council on Education for Public Health</a></li>

<li><a href="United_States_Public_Health_Service" title="United States Public Health Service">Public Health Service</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a></li>

<li><a href="World_Toilet_Organization" title="World Toilet Organization">World Toilet Organization</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Health_education" title="Health education">Health education</a></li>

<li>Higher education

<ul><li><a href="Bachelor_of_Science_in_Public_Health" title="Bachelor of Science in Public Health">Bachelor of Science in Public Health</a></li>

<li><a href="Doctor_of_Public_Health" title="Doctor of Public Health">Doctor of Public Health</a></li>

<li><a href="Professional_degrees_of_public_health" title="Professional degrees of public health">Professional degrees of public health</a></li>

<li>Schools of public health</li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="History_of_public_health_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of public health in the United Kingdom">History of public health in the United Kingdom</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_public_health_in_the_United_States" title="History of public health in the United States">History of public health in the United States</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_public_health_in_Australia" title="History of public health in Australia">History of public health in Australia</a></li>

<li><a href="Sara_Josephine_Baker" title="Sara Josephine Baker">Sara Josephine Baker</a></li>

<li><a href="Samuel_Jay_Crumbine" title="Samuel Jay Crumbine">Samuel Jay Crumbine</a></li>

<li><a href="Carl_Rogers_Darnall" title="Carl Rogers Darnall">Carl Rogers Darnall</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_Lister" title="Joseph Lister">Joseph Lister</a></li>

<li><a href="Margaret_Sanger" title="Margaret Sanger">Margaret Sanger</a></li>

<li><a href="Mary_Mallon" title="Mary Mallon">Typhoid Mary</a></li>

<li><a href="Radium_Girls" title="Radium Girls">Radium Girls</a></li>

<li><a href="Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">Germ theory of disease</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_hygiene_movement" title="Social hygiene movement">Social hygiene movement</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> <b>Category</b></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Public_health" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Public health">Commons</a></b></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"></span></span> <b>WikiProject</b></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-05-24" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Case%E2%80%93control_study&oldid=1292031493">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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